BARANA WAIDYATILAKE, MYRA SIVALOGANATHAN
Nine years since the cease of its civil war, Sri Lanka continues to endure from ethnic tensions that could derail its frail transitional judge procedure in addition to ignite novel rounds of conflict. Despite the cease of opened upward hostilities, resentment continues to aggravate relations betwixt the primarily Buddhist Sinhalese—Sri Lanka’s ethnic majority—and the minority community of Tamils. Tensions are also growing betwixt Sinhalese Buddhists in addition to the Muslim community, who constitute Sri Lanka’s second-largest ethnic minority. Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism has been identified as a major driver of yesteryear conflicts in addition to electrical flow tensions. Some attribute this nationalism to Sinhalese Buddhists’ insecurity virtually their lack of transnational networks of support, compared to their Tamil or Muslim compatriots. Such insecurity has been compounded yesteryear international criticism of the Sri Lankan province in addition to expressions of sympathy toward Sri Lankan Tamils.
Given the critical role that this perception of global isolation plays inward Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism, addressing it could opened upward up possibilities for amend managing this nationalism. One way to attain this is yesteryear formulating unusual policy messaging that tin garner positive international acknowledgment of Sinhalese-Buddhist identity. Since Sinhalese Buddhists seat most amongst their faith, references to Buddhism would survive incorporated into unusual policy messaging.
India in addition to the US of America also stand upward to derive long-term geopolitical in addition to strategic benefits from appointment amongst this variety of rhetoric. By winning the hearts in addition to minds of Sinhalese Buddhists, both countries could brand Sri Lanka to a greater extent than receptive to their strategic concerns regarding the regional activities in addition to investments of China.
The roots of Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism prevarication inward the Buddhist revival of the belatedly nineteenth century, which began as a answer to the marginalization of Buddhist teaching nether British colonialism.1 The influential reformer Anagarika Dharmapala contended that the Sinhalese Buddhists were the truthful “owners” of Sri Lanka’s ancient civilization, that this civilization had been destroyed yesteryear “barbaric vandals” such as Tamils, Muslims, in addition to Europeans,2 in addition to that whatever appeal to tolerance in addition to interethnic harmony was a ploy yesteryear Sri Lankan elites to suppress Sinhalese Buddhists.3 These arguments align amongst the defining features of nationalism: a communal identity based on linguistic communication in addition to faith that seeks to costless itself of external interference—which, inward this case, includes Sri Lankan minorities in addition to Europeans.
These ideological currents came to the forefront of national politics next the 1956 electoral victory of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), led yesteryear S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike. While the SLFP initially fostered Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism as a political force, electoral compulsions presently forced the competition United National Party (UNP) to promote the same ideology. Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism became a bipartisan forcefulness inward parliament, promoting laws that conduct maintain disadvantaged minorities, encouraged vehement responses to minority resistance, in addition to hindered governmental efforts to hit compromises.
NATIONALIST SENTIMENTS AMONG CONTEMPORARY SINHALESE BUDDHISTS
Efforts yesteryear successive governments as good as yesteryear civil monastic tell to weaken this nationalism conduct maintain been largely unsuccessful, as reflected inward the recent rising of extremist groups such as the Bodu Bala Sena (BBS), Sinhala Ravaya, in addition to Ravana Balaya. Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism is non a phenomenon limited to a few fringe groups but rather a fairly mutual ideology that enjoys pop support. In a 2016 survey, 70.4 per centum of Sinhalese Buddhists said article nine of the constitution, which grants “foremost place” to Buddhism in addition to requires the province to protect in addition to foster the Buddha Śāsana (Buddhist dispensation), was “extremely favorable.” Almost one-half (48 percent) said they were opposed to devolving powers to the war-affected, Tamil-dominated Northern in addition to Eastern Provinces in addition to to the regime rebuilding them.
THE MINORITY MENTALITY OF SINHALESE-BUDDHIST NATIONALISM
Given the continuing threat to peace in addition to stability posed yesteryear Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism, it is of import that Sri Lanka finds a way to weaken the appeal of such sentiment. Doing so, however, requires correctly identifying the key insecurity driving this nationalism. Anthropologist Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah noted the transnational aspect of this insecurity when he described Sinhalese Buddhists as a “majority amongst a minority complex.” Despite the clear demographic payoff they bask inward Sri Lanka, Sinhalese Buddhists are a minority inward the region, amongst no transnational networks comparable to those of Tamils in addition to Muslims. For example, patch at that topographic point are or so fifteen ane G m Sinhalese Buddhists inward Sri Lanka, at that topographic point are or so 72 ane G m Tamils inward the Indian province of Tamil Nadu.
This helps explicate why many Sinhalese Buddhists experience regionally isolated in addition to why they believe that minorities inward Sri Lanka utilisation transnational networks to farther their political goals. This nationalist watch was expressed inward 2016 yesteryear the full general secretarial assistant of the BBS, Dilanthe Withanage, who said that “global forces—political, financial, etc.—working against us, that’s what nosotros translate as the number hither . . . the Sinhalese [are] something less than fifteen million, compared to a 7000 ane G m basis population.”4
In recent years, this insecurity has been aggravated yesteryear the international pull per unit of measurement area set on Sri Lanka inward the aftermath of the civil war. The United States, the United Kingdom, in addition to India, as good as the United Nations Human Rights Council, conduct maintain criticized the regime in addition to military machine (which are dominated yesteryear Sinhalese Buddhists) for their comport inward the civil state of war in addition to for delays inward postwar transitional justice. These same critics conduct maintain expressed sympathy expressed for the struggles of Sri Lankan Tamils—and, recently, Muslims—reinforcing the Sinhalese Buddhists’ belief that minorities are leveraging transnational links to steer domestic political outcomes patch they conduct maintain no comparable allies overseas. Withanage expressed this sentiment when he said, “If something happens to the Muslims in addition to Tamils all the embassieswill enhance their voices. But if something happens to the Sinhalese, no ane is at that topographic point to protect [us].”
Sinhalese Buddhists lack, in addition to consequently desire, transnational back upward in addition to sympathy. Weakening the appeal of their nationalism requires an maiden to brand them experience positively acknowledged yesteryear the international community. Integrating Buddhist references into Sri Lankan unusual policy is a potential way to this end.
REFERENCING BUDDHIST VALUES TO WIN DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT
While interests such as national safety in addition to economical prosperity mightiness survive seen as the drivers of unusual policy, norms-based discourse—articulated inward unusual policy messaging—is how countries in addition to communities are recognized as skilful in addition to strong international citizens. Support for norms such as liberty of speech, the dominion of law, in addition to sustainability tend to inspire international approving in addition to support. The regime could consider unusual policy messaging that integrates Buddhist references to pop values inward monastic tell to brand Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalists experience that they also conduct maintain international sympathy in addition to recognition.
These references should garner positive reactions from unusual governments, media, in addition to civil monastic tell patch concurrently promoting Sinhalese-Buddhist identity. Values found inward the Pāḷi canon—the religious texts of Theravāda Buddhism that serve as scriptural ascendancy for Sinhalese Buddhists in addition to other Theravāda Buddhist communities inward Thailand in addition to Myanmar—such as nonviolence,5 pity for all life,6 in addition to liberty of inquiry,7 would survive positively received yesteryear most countries in addition to cultures inward the world.
An maiden to contain references from the Pāḷi canon into Sri Lanka’s unusual policy messaging could thus win positive international acknowledgment for Sinhalese Buddhists. It would also highlight their house inward the broader transnational community of Theravāda Buddhists. References to the Pāḷi canon would non exclusively resonate amongst Sinhalese Buddhists, but also amongst Thai, Laotian, in addition to Cambodian Buddhists, serving as a platform for stronger multilateral cooperation amongst other predominantly Theravāda Buddhist countries.
CEYLON AT THE SAN FRANCISCO PEACE CONFERENCE
If the rationale for unusual policy messaging that includes Buddhist values is clear, the query arises of what it would await similar inward practice. The experience of Ceylon (as Sri Lanka was in addition to so known) at the 1951 San Francisco Peace Conference offers ane illustration of Buddhist unusual policy messaging.
The peace conference convened to determine the condition of Nippon inward the post–World War II international system. While some countries argued for strict damage to suppress Japanese nationalism, the delegation from Ceylon, headed yesteryear in addition to so finance government minister J.R. Jayawardene, argued for a freer Nippon in addition to rejected state of war reparations. This reconciliatory stance integrated nonviolence in addition to pity into policymaking through references to Buddhism. Jayawardene stated, “We do non intend to [seek reparations] for nosotros believe inward the words of the Great Teacher [the Buddha] whose message has ennobled the lives of countless millions inward Asia, that hatred ceases non yesteryear hatred but yesteryear love.”8 Ceylon made its Buddhist-inspired case for a costless Nippon along amongst Islamic Republic of Pakistan in addition to the Buddhist-majority Lao People's Democratic Republic in addition to Cambodia.
Employing Ceylon’s Buddhist heritage had a specific political purpose: supporting a Western-backed liberal peace for Asia, which afterward came to survive known as the San Francisco System. At the same time, Jayawardene’s reference to Buddhist values was couched inward linguistic communication that did non weigh the message downwardly amongst inaccessible dogma in addition to connected religious principles to the secular humanist value of compassion. He refrained from making faith the primary focus of his message. By implicitly promoting Buddhism’s relevance to contemporary political issues (as opposed to presenting these values as all-enveloping truths), Jayawardene helped brand the religious aspect of the message to a greater extent than relatable to the international audience at the conference.
WHAT BUDDHIST FOREIGN POLICY MESSAGING SHOULD—AND SHOULD NOT—BE
The San Francisco Peace Conference illustration provides insight into how values from the Pāḷi canon tin survive incorporated into Sri Lanka’s unusual policy. Just as Jayawardene focused squarely on Buddhism’s universally relatable values, the Theravāda Buddhism followed yesteryear Sinhalese Buddhists tin also survive communicated inward a way that highlights its humanist elements. To survive effective, references to these values must survive integrated into messaging that is subtle in addition to understated. Buddhism does non demand to be, in addition to should non be, the fundamental subject of unusual policy. Rather, messaging should allude to the Buddhist origins of Sri Lanka’s stance on detail issues.
For example, Sri Lanka could utilisation the Sapta Aparihani Dhamma (the Seven Conditions of Welfare) to back upward key norms inward liberal democratic discourse.9 Conditions 1 in addition to 2 (frequent populace assemblies, in addition to coming together in addition to dispersing peacefully) reverberate liberal norms similar liberty of spoken communication in addition to assembly.10 Condition three (enacting naught non already established, in addition to abrogating naught that has already been enacted) relates to the dominion of law, a quintessential liberal value.11 Sri Lanka’s regime could utilisation these norms as justification for recent initiatives, such as joining the U.S.-led Open Government Partnership, which seeks to promote transparency, empower citizens, in addition to combat corruption.
Another key expanse inward which Buddhist values tin survive incorporated into unusual policy messaging is Sri Lanka’s transitional judge procedure in addition to its interactions amongst the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) in addition to other international actors. Here, Sri Lanka could portray its commitment to advancing postwar reconciliation in addition to accountability as an affirmation of the Buddhist values of tolerance in addition to compassion (for example, yesteryear referring to the Buddha’s involvement inward settling a dispute betwixt kinsmen in addition to neighbors).
The integration of Buddhist references into unusual policy messaging would survive qualitatively dissimilar from Sri Lanka’s electrical flow Buddhism-based actions. These are exemplified yesteryear initiatives such as the Seventh Buddhist Summit of the World Buddhist Supreme Conference, held inward Nov 2017 inward Colombo, in addition to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi gracing Sri Lanka’s celebration of International Day of Vesak as its main guest.
These recent initiatives boundary Buddhism to the cultural airplane rather than incorporating it into issues of political importance, such as climate modify or nuclear nonproliferation. Previous initiatives conduct maintain been to a greater extent than dogmatic inward promoting Buddhism than the rhetoric advocated here. For example, the Kandy (Mahanuwara) Declaration from the International Vesak Day celebrations inward 2017 emphasized that Sri Lanka was “the exclusively province blessed amongst the see of Buddha,” despite at that topographic point existence no bear witness whatsoever to back upward this claim. This hints at a to a greater extent than parochial Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism that the approach proposed hither seeks to diminish. Such expressions of Buddhism, based on unverifiable claims, would conduct maintain lilliputian resonance amongst international political discourse in addition to would thus non give Sinhalese Buddhists the positive international recognition they seek.
BUDDHIST RHETORIC AND INTERNATIONAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The inward a higher house give-and-take broadly outlines what Buddhist messaging inward unusual policy mightiness await similar inward practice. The query that remains is whether it could win the desired international reception in addition to salve nationalist insecurity.
Ceylon in addition to J.R. Jayawardene’s defence forcefulness of Nippon at the San Francisco Peace Conference received overwhelmingly positive attention. His spoken communication was “cheered long in addition to enthusiastically yesteryear the delegates” in addition to “dominated the conference [that] morning.” More pregnant was the subsequent outcome of his spoken communication on relations betwixt the 2 countries. While some conduct maintain claimed amongst exaggeration that Jayawardene earned the eternal gratitude of the Japanese for his statesmanship, he was honored amongst a monument on the premises of the Kamakura Buddhist monument inward Japan, in addition to Tokyo remains Sri Lanka’s largest sponsor of official evolution assistance today. These facts back upward the statement that employing Buddhist unusual policy at the 1951 San Francisco Peace Conference earned Sri Lanka long-standing Japanese support. While Nippon arguably would conduct maintain been appreciative of Sri Lanka’s reconciliatory stance amongst or without Buddhist references, the emphasis on the shared Buddhist heritage of the 2 countries ensured that the subsequent increment inward their relations was rooted inward cultural factors to a greater extent than enduring than shifting geopolitical realities. Relations conduct maintain remained strong despite the collapse of the bipolar Cold War monastic tell against the backdrop of which Jayawardene’s spoken communication was made.
Japan’s long-term policy of engaging positively amongst Sri Lanka has also earned it the trust of Sinhalese Buddhists. It was ane of the major countries involved inward Sri Lanka’s peace procedure from 2002 to 2006.12 Nippon engaged amongst the regime during the civil state of war in addition to after its cease inward 2009. In the postwar context, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, in addition to Kingdom of Norway denounced the Sri Lankan government’s comport during the state of war in addition to applied diplomatic in addition to economic pressures on Sri Lanka. By contrast, Japan acknowledged the government’s efforts inward postwar reconstruction.
Japan nevertheless consistently urged the regime to pursue reconciliation in addition to accountability, in addition to it offered to human activeness as Sri Lanka’s liaison inward rebuilding ties amongst the West. Japan’s policy of back upward without appearing to threaten the sovereignty of Sri Lanka has led to it existence perceived as a neutral, trusted province yesteryear Sinhalese Buddhists as good as yesteryear other Sri Lankans. For example, Minister of Megapolis in addition to Western Development Champika Ranawaka, when inward a previous ministerial post, told quondam Japanese special envoy to Sri Lanka Yasushi Akashi inward 2013 that he hoped a neutral province such as Nippon could allow the basis know the “truth” virtually the war. In addition, a review of bilateral ties published yesteryear the government’s word portal also noted that Japan stood yesteryear the democratically elected government of Sri Lanka (in this case, the Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalist regime of quondam president Mahinda Rajapaksa) when the UNHRC passed a resolution criticizing the country.
This praise of in addition to trust inward Nippon way that it is able to play an active role inward making Sri Lanka’s transitional judge commitments to a greater extent than acceptable to Sinhalese Buddhists. Western commentators conduct maintain already noted that Japan’s appointment amongst Sri Lanka has been effective; for example, inward pushing Rajapaksa to concur provincial council elections inward the Tamil-dominated Northern Province inward 2013. This suggests that Japan’s approach has been to a greater extent than effective than Western attempts to weaken Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism.
Other countries also stand upward to do goodness from Sri Lanka promoting Buddhist messaging inward unusual policy. In particular, Republic of Republic of India would gain much, given its consistent advocacy for a political solution to Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflict that addresses Tamil grievances (formally embodied inward the Indo–Sri Lanka Peace Accord of 1987). Any weakening of Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism would facilitate a to a greater extent than reconciliatory stance toward Tamil grievances in addition to would thus survive to India’s benefit.
Considering Buddhism’s origins inward India, positive relations would strengthen the Sinhalese-Buddhist perception of the province as a cultural in addition to spiritual ally, which was a model for relations inward the past. It would also signal that Republic of Republic of India is as concerned for in addition to respectful of the Sinhalese-Buddhist community as it is the Tamil community.
Modi struck the right greenback inward this regard inward 2015 when he visited in addition to paid homage to the Sacred Bodhi Tree inward Anuradhapura, ane of the holiest sites for Sri Lankan Sinhalese Buddhists. In addition, Republic of Republic of India has started integrating Buddhist messaging into its ain foreign policy. During visits to Nepal, Bhutan, Japan, South Korea, in addition to Mongolia, Modi visited ancient Buddhist temples in addition to stupas, in addition to made reference to the shared cultural heritage of Asian nations. By farther supporting in addition to reaching out to Sri Lanka through Buddhist diplomatic initiatives, Republic of Republic of India could advance its ain political in addition to strategic interests inward the province in addition to simultaneously strengthen its initiatives across the region. For example, Republic of Republic of India could partner amongst Sri Lanka inward convening a tiptop of Buddhist-majority in addition to Buddhist-heritage nations. Participating states could examine issues such as climate change, sustainability, in addition to nuclear nonproliferation through a Buddhist lens, highlighting the contributions that Buddhist-humanist values could provide.
Countries such as the US of America would broadly do goodness from a reduction inward Sri Lanka’s ethnic tensions. Given the country’s strategic location at the optic of the Indian Ocean—an increasingly contested geopolitical space—it is of import for the US of America to ensure that Sri Lanka is responsive to Washington’s strategic concerns inward the region. Positively receiving Sri Lanka’s Buddhist unusual policy messaging would aid the US of America win the hearts in addition to minds of the Sinhalese Buddhist population over the long term, given that the province has consistently ranked as ane of the world’s most religious. More importantly, such acknowledgment would allow the US of America to occupy a populace diplomacy infinite that could otherwise easily survive taken over yesteryear strategic competitors such as China.
CONCLUSION
Much stands to survive gained for Sri Lanka in addition to other countries through the successful integration of Buddhist references into Sri Lankan unusual policy messaging. Besides the notable illustration of Jayawardene’s defence forcefulness of Nippon inward 1951, some guidance tin also survive taken from other unofficial Buddhism-inspired unusual policy stances, such as those of the fourteenth Dalai Lama, on issues such as climate change, democratic governance, in addition to support for scientific research. These issues tin survive seen as low-hanging fruit through which Sri Lanka could easily articulate its policy yesteryear referencing Buddhist scriptures.
This integration of Buddhist values into unusual policy messaging should involve Buddhist monks, who could squall for out areas of convergence betwixt values from the Pāḷi canon in addition to contemporary global issues. However, given the pregnant role that monks conduct maintain played inward sustaining Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism, their involvement inward the inward a higher house business should survive overseen yesteryear a secular, multiethnic body. Such a trunk could review the monks’ proposals to determine whether they are consistent amongst Sri Lanka’s other unusual policy stances in addition to do non promote a nationalist reading of Buddhist scripture, as was the instance amongst the Kandy (Mahanuwara) Declaration.
Apart from this obstacle, the integration of Buddhist values into Sri Lanka’s unusual policy messaging does non acquaint substantial challenges. Buddhism enjoys constitutional protection in addition to the regime has already enacted diverse (albeit flawed) projects inward Buddhist diplomacy, so an maiden to integrate Buddhist references into unusual policy messaging would probable have legal in addition to fiscal back upward from the Sri Lankan state. Considering whether such an maiden mightiness human face upward resistance from non-Buddhist Sri Lankans, adopting to a greater extent than cosmopolitan Buddhist messaging inward unusual policy would at to the lowest degree signal a shift toward a to a greater extent than liberal interpretation of Buddhism that is welcoming of minorities, inward stark contrast to the ethnonationalist Buddhism that currently pervades regime institutions.
While much remains to survive decided virtually how such an maiden tin survive implemented, this new—and possibly counterintuitive—approach to addressing Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflicts may lay the foundation for to a greater extent than substantive transitional judge measures yesteryear kickoff addressing a key insecurity of Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalists. Buddhist unusual policy messaging cannot substitute for substantive domestic reform in addition to transitional judge processes. However, yesteryear mitigating Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism, it could pave the way for farther reforms.
Barana Waidyatilake is a research beau at the Lakshman Kadirgamar Institute of International Relations in addition to Strategic Studies (LKI) inward Colombo. Myra Sivaloganathan is a global associate at LKI.
The authors admit the guidance in addition to assistance of Dr. Dinusha Panditaratne in addition to other colleagues at LKI; all remaining errors in addition to omissions existence the authors’ own.The opinions expressed inward this article are the authors’ in addition to non the institutional views of LKI. They do non necessarily reverberate the seat of whatever other establishment or private amongst which the authors are affiliated.
NOTES
1 George D. Bond, The Buddhist Revival inward Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation in addition to Response (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), 16–22.
2 Anagarika Dharmapala, History of an Ancient Civilization: Ceylon nether British Rule (Los Angeles: n/a, 1902), 382.
3 H. L. Seneviratne, The Work of Kings, University of Chicago Press, 2000, 32.
4 Myra Sivaloganathan, “Sri Lankan Discourses of Ethno-Nationalism in addition to Religious Fundamentalism” (master’s thesis, McMaster University, 2017), 65.
5 Sutta Nipata, Majjhima Nikaya, Vepacitti Sutta, in addition to Satipatthana Samyutta.
6 Kālāmā Sutta (AN 3.65), in addition to Sigalovada Sutta.
7 Kālāmā Sutta.
8 Junius Richard Jayewardene, “The Japanese Peace Treaty: Speech at the Conference for the Conclusion in addition to Signature of the Treaty of Peace amongst Japan” (speech delivered on September 6, 1951) J.R. Jayewardene Center.
9 Kumar Wethasinghe, “Seven Conditions of Welfare (Sapta Aparihani Dhamma),” Daily Mirror, July 18, 2016, http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/Seven-Conditions-of-Welfare-Sapta-Aparihani-Dhamma--112710.html.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 M. M. Fazil, “Japan’s Peace-Building Efforts inward Sri Lanka: Consolidation of Peace in addition to Nation-Building,” inward Post-War Reconstruction inward Sri Lanka: Prospects in addition to Challenges, ed. Dhammika Herath et al., (Kandy, Sri Lanka: International Center for Ethnic Studies), 95–124.
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