By Mark B. Schneider
The 2018 Nuclear Posture Review concluded that the U.S. must deploy a little issue of low-yield nuclear warheads on its Trident missiles to deter Russian kickoff exercise of low-yield nuclear weapons for express nuclear strikes inward conventional warfare. It states, “Russia’s belief that express nuclear kickoff use, potentially including low-yield weapons, tin can furnish such an payoff is based, inward part, on Moscow’s perception that its greater issue in addition to multifariousness of non-strategic nuclear systems furnish a coercive payoff inward crises in addition to at lower levels of conflict. Recent Russian statements on this evolving nuclear weapons doctrine seem to lower the threshold for Moscow’s first-use of nuclear weapons. Russian Federation demonstrates its perception of the payoff these systems furnish through numerous exercises in addition to statements. Correcting this false Russian perception is a strategic imperative.”[1]
The threat of Russian kickoff exercise involving express nuclear strikes was recognized past times the Obama administration. In Oct 2016, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter stated that “…it’s a sobering fact that the most probable exercise of nuclear weapons is non the massive nuclear telephone commutation of the classic Cold War-type, but rather the unwise resort to smaller but yet unprecedentedly terrible attacks, for example, past times Russian Federation or Democratic People's South Korea to essay to coerce a conventionally superior opponent to dorsum off or abandon an ally during a crisis.”[2] As Secretary of Defense Jim Mattis has stated, “We desire to brand sure they recognize that nosotros tin can response inward variety in addition to that nosotros don’t take away maintain to become amongst the high yield weapon.”[3]
Domestic opposition to this NPR determination appears to live largely ideological in addition to ignores the disparity inward such weapons that straight off exists in addition to Russia’s doctrine amongst regards to the kickoff exercise of nuclear weapons. There is naught novel nigh low-yield warheads on ballistic missiles. In add-on to Russia, the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to French Republic reportedly take away maintain low-yield ballistic missile warheads on their SLBMs.[4]
Russia reportedly has acquired low-yield, precision low-yield in addition to low-collateral harm nuclear weapons. This was originally reported past times distinguished Russian journalist Pavel Felgenhauer who wrote inward 2002 that inward Apr 1999 the Russian National Security Council approved a concept for developing in addition to using “…non-strategic low- in addition to flexible-yield battlefield weapons,” in addition to that the yield of these precision weapons would live tens or hundreds of tons of TNT.[5] “Flexible yield” is clearly what nosotros telephone weep upwards variable yield or dial a yield. New Russian low-yield nuclear weapons are reported inward the Russian press including inward the reason media. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 declassified twelvemonth 2000 CIA study observed, “Moscow’s armed forces doctrine on the exercise of nuclear weapons has been evolving in addition to in all likelihood has served every bit the justification for the evolution of real low-yield, high-precision nuclear weapons. The arrive at of applications volition ultimately live determined past times Russia’s evolving nuclear doctrine, in addition to could include artillery, air-to-air weapons, ABM weapons, anti-satellite weapons or multiple rocket launchers against tanks or massed troops.…”[6] In 2009, the bipartisan U.S. Strategic Commission study said Russian Federation was developing “…low-yield tactical nuclear weapons including an globe penetrator.”[7]
Actual Russian deployment of strategic low-yield nuclear warheads (tens of tons to 200 tons yield) on Russian SLBMs (the Sineva in addition to Bulava-30) has been reported inward the reason media (Sputnik News in addition to Ria Novosti), in addition to inward the decidedly non-state media, the liberal Ekho Moskvy Radio (in an interview amongst hardline but good connected Russian journalist Colonel (ret.) Viktor Litovkin.).[8] Since, according to then-Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov, the Bulava-30 SLBM in addition to RS-24/Yars ICBM exercise the same novel warhead, it is nearly sure that the RS-24 too has low- yield options.[9]
Russian media take away maintain too reported that Russian Federation has developed in addition to deployed novel low-yield tactical nuclear weapons. In 2004, Russian television receiver displayed a novel howitzer which it said: “…could live used to burn downwardly low-yield nuclear bombs.”[10] In 2013, Academician Yevgeniy Avrorin, a one-time Director of the Sarov nuclear weapons laboratory (the All-Russian Scientific-Research Institute), inward an interview published past times the Sarov laboratory, said the Russian 152-mm nuclear artillery compaction amongst “a kiloton yield” has been “broadly deployed” throughout the Russian Army.[11] In 2009, Russia’s principal official tidings way ITAR-TASS (now called TASS) reported that, “The nuclear submarine Severodvinsk volition live equipped amongst long-range cruise missiles that tin can potentially ship low-capacity tactical warheads.”[12] The 2018 NPR study indicates that Russian Federation has CRBM (Close Range Ballistic Missiles) which would take away maintain to take away maintain low-yield warheads because of their express range. Dr. Philip Karber, President of the Potomac Foundation, has stated that roughly one-half of Russia’s 5,000 tactical nuclear weapons take away maintain been modernized amongst novel sub-kiloton nuclear warheads for air-defense, torpedoes in addition to cruise missiles.[13]
Russia is too reportedly developing advanced low-collateral harm designs. In 1999, Major General (ret.) Vladimir Belous discussed the evolution of “neutron artillery shells, mortar shells, in addition to operational-tactical missile warheads.”[14] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 declassified CIA study gives this some additional credibility, noting, “A issue of articles [in the Russian press] propose that Russian Federation is developing low-yield warheads amongst enhanced radiations that could live used on high-precision non-strategic weapons systems.”[15] Moreover, inward 2013, the Sarov nuclear weapons laboratory said that during the Cold War they had developed a peaceful nuclear explosive (PNE) device that was 99.85% based on fusion.[16] This is essentially a low-yield/low-collateral harm nuclear weapon. The entirely inquiry would live its size in addition to weight but, worst case, it sure as shooting could live delivered past times whatsoever strategic bomber which tin can deliver large in addition to heavy weapons. Vice Admiral (ret.) Robert Monroe, one-time Director of the Defense Nuclear Agency, has late stated that Russian Federation is straight off twenty years ahead of the U.S. inward such weapons.[17]
Pavel Felgenhauer has written that the Russian S-300, S-400, S-500 air defence missiles in addition to the Moscow ABM are nuclear capable in addition to take away maintain a secondary ground-attack capability.[18] While he did non bring upwards yield, these missiles, 2 of which the Russians say are designed to intercept ballistic missiles in addition to satellites inward close space,[19] would take away maintain to take away maintain real low-yield warheads unless Russian leaders don’t heed destroying Russian Federation amongst nuclear EMP effects from their ain weapons. Both TASS in addition to Sputnik News, both reason media, take away maintain confirmed Felgenhauer’s study that the S-300 in addition to S-400 anti-aircraft missiles take away maintain the capability to assault Earth targets.[20] The 2018 NPR confirms the existence of nuclear warheads on Russian anti-aircraft missiles.[21]
Senior Russian officials take away maintain talked nigh Russian low-yield nuclear weapons. In 2007, Russian Deputy Chief of the General Staff General Alexander Rukshin, said Russian Federation had “…created low-yield nuclear tactical nuclear ordnance amongst a yield of no to a greater extent than than 5 kilotons, which tin can live employed on the battlefield.”[22] In 2009, Vice Admiral Oleg Burtsev, then-First Deputy Chief of the Russian Naval Staff, said that tactical nuclear weapons may live the futurity and, “We tin can install low-yield warheads on existing cruise missiles.”[23] These statements are peculiarly interesting because they were made inward contravention of the Russian propaganda describe that the U.S. was developing such weapons, which was untrue at that time. It is normal for Russian Federation to accuse that the U.S. is doing what Russian Federation is truly doing. Further confirmation of low-yield tactical nuclear weapons comes inward a March 2009 ITAR-TASS story which said, “The missiles [on the novel Russian nuclear submarine Severodvinsk] are capable of carrying low-yield tactical nuclear warheads in addition to are meant to live used against the potential enemy’s aircraft carrying groups.”[24]
In Dec 2015, President Putin revealed that the Kalibr in addition to Kh-101 cruise missiles used inward attacks against Syrian targets, “…can live equipped either amongst conventional or special nuclear warheads.”[25] Interfax-AVN reported that the Kalibr has a “nuclear kiloton warhead.”[26]
Advanced low-yield nuclear in addition to thermonuclear weapons were reportedly developed past times the Soviet Union inward its afterwards years.[27]Russian expatriate Nikolai Sokov writes, “…as early on every bit 1992, Lieutenant General Evgeniy Negin announced that Russian Federation already had developed a miniaturized nuclear weapon.”[28] In 1994, Russian Atomic Energy Minister Viktor Mikhaylov stated that “a novel generation” of nuclear weapons could live developed past times the twelvemonth 2000.[29] In 1996, he called for the structure of 10,000 real low-yield nuclear weapons.[30] In August 2003, when he was Director of the Sarov nuclear weapons laboratory, Mikhaylov said Russian efforts to amend thermonuclear weapons continued in addition to that at that topographic point were weapons “yielding hundreds of tons.”[31] This is to a greater extent than than a low-yield weapon. It would too live a low-collateral harm blueprint (effectively a neutron bomb) which would live cleaner (producing less collateral damage) in addition to to a greater extent than militarily effective than low-yield fission weapons against some targets. That same twelvemonth he observed, “The philosophy of thermonuclear weapons has changed today, in addition to on the agenda is the evolution of high-precision in addition to deep-penetration nuclear bombs,” farther adding that Russian Federation was ahead of the USA inward these weapons.[32] In Dec 2002, he declared, “The scientists are developing a nuclear ‘scalpel’ capable of ‘surgically removing’ in addition to destroying real localized targets. The low-yield warhead volition live surrounded amongst a superhardened casing which makes it possible to penetrate 30–40 meters into stone in addition to destroy a buried target—for example, a troop command in addition to command dot or a nuclear munitions storage facility.”[33] These are real impressive characteristics. Since this was said xvi years agone in addition to Mikhaylov too said that it would bring 10-20 years to educate this weapon, these weapons could already live available. In March 2004 Mikhaylov 1 time to a greater extent than stated that, “Thermonuclear weapons evolution philosophy has changed in addition to run is beingness conducted on the evolution of precision-guided munitions amongst penetrating capability.”[34]
Concerning the Russian Vostok 2010 armed forces exercise, the official paper of the Far East Military District said, “To suppress a large centre of the separatists’ resistance in addition to to accomplish minimal losses of the attacking troops a low-yield ‘nuclear’ assault was mounted against the enemy.”[35] In the same exercise, Pavel Felgenhauer wrote that Russian Federation used a nuclear-armed S-300 surface-to-air missile against a Earth target.[36]
Despite the close hysterical reaction from Russian Federation in addition to U.S. arms command enthusiasts, the U.S. computer program for a low-yield warhead for the Trident missile is quite modest, prudent in addition to non remotely comparable to existing Russian capabilities in addition to programs. The weapons that the U.S. plans to install volition live little inward number, pocket-sized inward cost, non a novel type of nuclear weapon in addition to volition non require a nuclear test.[37] This clearly rules out low-collateral harm warheads, precision or near-precision accuracy, or globe penetration – all capabilities that the Russians are reported to take away maintain or are developing. Such restrictions too foreclose whatsoever pregnant warfighting capability. The role of the low-yield Trident warhead is non warfighting but rather to deter Russian kickoff exercise of nuclear weapons which would real probable involve precision low-yield or low-collateral harm nuclear weapons. The Russians believe they tin can exercise these without precipitating a massive nuclear exchange.
The Trident submarines take away maintain the survivability that is necessary for an effective deterrent, but they take away maintain 1980s grade accuracy which is goodness but non precision or close precision. Their survivable capability could deter Russian kickoff exercise of low-yield weapons including exercise against bomber bases in addition to nuclear-capable fighter bases to eliminate U.S. retaliatory capability against low-yield assault past times a preemptive attack. However, these aircraft are non on alarm and, hence, unless position on alarm tin can live eliminated past times nigh 10 ordinary nuclear weapons. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2007 study past times CSIS concluded, “In a ‘bolt from the blue’ attack, simply v dedicated nuclear strikes could discover all 3 strategic nuclear bomber bases in addition to the 2 submarine bases.”[38] Trident submarines at body of body of water volition real probable survive, but non-alert bombers acquaint at their bases could live destroyed. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 little issue of B-61 nuclear bombs are reportedly deployed at v NATO air bases inward Europe.[39] Again, they could live taken out past times a little nuclear assault if they are non on alarm or dispersed. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 real goodness recent analysis past times James R. Howe has concluded that a little issue of precision low-yield nuclear weapons would eliminate the might of these bases to retaliate for months (even assuming no follow-on Russian nuclear attacks) amongst real depression levels of collateral damage.[40] Howe too raised job organization nigh the possibility of a much larger Russian precision-low-yield assault (about 1,300 to 1,500 weapons) which has the potential to defeat NATO amongst pocket-sized collateral damage.
The NPR determination on Trident low-yield capability was recommended past times the Obama administration’s Defense Science Board inward Dec 2016.[41] It plugs a major hole inward our electrical flow deterrent capability at virtually no cost.
Putin’s remarkably militant nuclear superweapons spoken communication to the Russian Federation Duma on March 1, 2018, should live a wake-up telephone weep upwards regarding the ask to create a to a greater extent than effective deterrent to counter Putin’s irresponsible policies. Make no error nigh the intended target of this speech. As Maxim Trudolyubov, a senior swain amongst the Kennan Institute, observed, “…Interestingly, both state-run [Russian] tidings media in addition to independent outlets agreed that the spoken communication was mainly targeted at Washington.”[42] Putin kickoff staked out a claim to the one-time Soviet states because “…Russia, which was known every bit the Soviet Union or Soviet Russian Federation abroad” had lost them amongst the demise of the Soviet Union.[43] Then, he alternated betwixt portraying Russian Federation every bit a victim (making ridiculous claims nigh U.S. missile defence in addition to the failure of the West to “listen” to Russia) in addition to making extreme forms of measure Russian nuclear threats – nuclear superweapons in addition to an “immediate” nuclear launch after a supposed Western attack. Pavel Felgenhauer summed upwards the message as, “Russia is non aggressive, according to Putin, but it demands what it believes it is due—otherwise, its doomsday nuclear superweapons are ready.”[44]
Putin does non desire Russian Federation to live listened to. He wants its imperialism in addition to aggression accepted at the dot of his nuclear superweapons. After declaring to the West, “So hear now,” Putin went into a spoken communication which, every bit a noted British Russian Federation practiced Roger McDermott observed, “…offered a vision of the Russian Armed Forces to a greater extent than akin to a parody of Dr. Strangelove.”[45]
Derek Williams in addition to Adam B. Lowther attribute Russian confidence that Russian Federation tin can start a nuclear conflict, command it in addition to win it to the fact that, “…Vladimir Putin believes the USA lacks the volition in addition to the weapons to response non entirely to express nuclear state of war but the cohesive exercise of nuclear deterrence for political gain.”[46] We ask nuclear deterrent programs that would convince Putin that his theory of victory is foolhardy in addition to if he tries aggression it volition live resisted in addition to defeated in addition to that Russian nuclear weapons kickoff exercise volition non assure his victory. We must assure that whatsoever U.S. President has the broadest possible arrive at of credible nuclear options to convince whatsoever potential assailant to desist from attacking us or our allies amongst nuclear or WMD weapons.
Dr. Mark B. Schneider is a Senior Analyst amongst the National Institute for Public Policy. Before his retirement from the Department of Defense Senior Executive Service, Dr. Schneider served inward a issue of senior positions inside the Office of Secretary of Defense for Policy including Principal Director for Forces Policy, Principal Director for Strategic Defense, Space in addition to Verification Policy, Director for Strategic Arms Control Policy in addition to Representative of the Secretary of Defense to the Nuclear Arms Control Implementation Commissions. He too served inward the senior Foreign Service every bit a Member of the State Department Policy Planning Staff.
Notes:
[1] Department of Defense, Nuclear Posture Review, (Washington D.C., US, Department of Defense, Feb 2018), pp. XI-XII, available at https://media.defense.gov/2018/Feb/02/2001872886/-1/-1/1/2018-NUCLEAR-POSTURE-REVIEW-FINAL-REPORT.PDF.
[2] “Remarks past times Secretary Carter to troops at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota,” (Washington D.C., U.S. subdivision of Defense, Sept. 26, 2016), available at http://www.defense.gov/News/ Transcripts/Transcript-View/Article/957408/remarks-by-secretary-carter-to-troops-at-kirtland-afb-new-mexico.
[3] Jamie McIntyre, “Jim Mattis: Low-yield nukes hateful US won’t take away maintain to select betwixt ‘surrender’ in addition to ‘suicide’,” The Examiner, Feb 6, 2018, available at https://dialog.proquest.com/professional/docview/ 1999173890? accountid=155509.
[4] Federation of American Scientists, “Trident-II D-5,” Federation of American Scientists, Dec 4, 2006,http://fas.org/nuke/guide/uk/slbm/d-5.htm.: David S. Yost, “France’s New Nuclear Doctrine,” International Affairs, Vo. 82, No. iv (2006), p. 704, available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2006. 00564.x /abstract.
[5] Pavel Felgenhauer, “Bomber Makers Trade Union,” The Moscow Times, March 14, 2002, available at http://www. themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/bomb-makers-trade-union/247805 html.
[6] “Evidence of Russian Development of New Subkiloton Nuclear Warheads [Redacted],” Intelligence Memorandum, Central Intelligence Agency, August 30, 2000, approved for unloosen Oct 2005, pp. 6, 10, available athttp://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/89801/DOC_0001260463.pdf.
[7] William J. Perry in addition to James R. Schlesinger, America’s Strategic Posture – The Final Report of the Congressional Commission on the Strategic Posture of the United States, (Washington D.C.: U.S. Institute of Peace, 2009), p. 12, available at http://media.usip.org/reports/strat_posture_report.pdf.
[8] Ilya Kramnik, “Nevsky in addition to Novomoskovsk: Two Submarines for Putin,” Sputnik News, Dec 12, 2010, available athttp://sputniknews.com/analysis/20101215/161784522.htmlz.: Andrey Kislyakov, “Does Russian Federation Need a ‘Wet’ Missile in addition to One More Tank?,” Ria Novosti, Jan 19, 2008. (Translated past times World News Connection).; “Russian pundit Litovkin argues instance of Bulava,” Ekho Moskvy Radio, July 17, 2009. (Translated past times World News Connection).
[9] “Russia to exercise same warheads on land, sea,” UPI News Track, Apr 24, 2006. (Transcribed past times World News Connection).
[10] “Russian TV shows howitzer capable of firing low-yield nuclear warheads,” BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union, Apr 11, 2004, available at https://dialog.proquest.com/professional/docview/460568620?Accounted =155509.
[11] Академик Евгений Николаевич Аврорин: «Наука — это то, что можно сделать, а техническая наука — это то, что нужно сделать»,” atomicenergy.ru, Apr 10, 2013, available at http://www.atomic-energy.ru/interviews/
2013/04/10/41068. (In Russian).
[12] “RF To Build half dozen Nuclear Subs With Long-range Cruise Missiles,” ITAR-TASS, March 27, 2009. No longer available on the TASS webs-site, but Western press stories citing the ITAR–TASS study stay on the internet. “Russia to build half dozen nuke subs amongst Cruise Missiles,” CNN, March 28, 2009, available at https://army.ca/forums/ index.php?topic = 85048.0 World/.
[13] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 video of Karber’s presentation is available at http://www.lse.ac.uk/ideas/podcasts/karber.
[14] National Institute for Public Policy, “Section II Minimum Deterrence: Fragile Hope for Constant in addition to Benign Threat Environment,” (Fairfax Va.: National Institute for Public Policy, September 2014,), p. 22, available at http://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/ FOID/ Reading%20Room/Other/Litigation%20Release%20-%20Section%20II%20Minimum%20Deterrence twenty Fragile%20Hope.pdf.
[15] Office of Russian in addition to European Analysis, Central Intelligence Agency “Russia: [Deleted],” June 22, 2000,
[16] “About Snezhinsk,” CNCP.ru, Apr 2013, available at http://www.cncp.ru/new_site/ng/participants/snezhinsk/ snezinsk1.shtml.
[17] Vice Admiral (ret.) Robert Monroe, “Facing the grave nuclear risk,” The Washington Times, Jan 27, 2017, available athttps://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2017/jan/26/america-must-resume-underground-nuclear-testing/.
[18] Pavel Felgenhauer, “Russia Seeks to Impose New ABM Treaty on the US past times Developing BMD,” Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume 7, No. 136 (July 16, 2010), available at http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ Ttnews[tt_news]=36624.
[19] “Russia: Comments past times Deputy Defense Minister Ostapenko on Aerospace Defense Troops Programs Commentary past times Interfaks-AVN, Moscow, 24 April: The New S-500 Air Defense Missile System Will Be Able To
Effectively Combat Advanced Offensive Aerospace Weapons…” Interfax-AVN Online, Apr 26, 2013. (Translated past times World News Connection).: “Regiment of S-400 to teach into duty inward Sevastopol inward Feb 2018,” TASS, Oct 24, 2017, available at http:// tass.com/defense/972236.
[20] “Russian Armed Forces volition teach v S-400 air defence systems inward September-October 2016,” TASS, Feb 29, 2016, available at http://tass.ru/en/defense/859641.: “S-400 missile defence regiment takes upwards combat duty exterior Moscow (VIDEO),” Sputnik News, Jan 11, 2017, available at https://sputniknews.com/russia/2017011110 49464109-russia-s-400-moscow/.
[21] Nuclear Posture Review, op. cit., p. 53.
[22] Quoted inward Mark B. Schneider, “The Future of the U.S. Nuclear Deterrent,” Comparative Strategy, Vol. 27, No. iv (October 31, 2008), p. 348, available at http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01495930802358539.
[23] “Russian Federation Will Increase Role of Tactical Nuclear Weapons on Multirole Nuclear Submarines,” Gazeta, March 23, 2009, available at https://dialog.proquest.com/professional/docview/460452801?Accounted =155509.
[24] “Russia’s Severodvinsk assault sub to live armed amongst novel cruise missiles,” BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union, March 27, 2009, available at https://dialog.proquest.com/professional/docview/460438489? Accounted =155509.
[25] “Meeting amongst Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu,” Kremlin.ru, Dec 8, 2015, available at http://en.kremlin. ru/events/president/news/50892.
[26] “Shipbuilding And Navy; Severodvinsk nuclear sub tests volition halt inward 2012 – Navy commander,” Interfax, August 24, 2012, available at https://dialog.proquest.com/professional/docview/1038339219?accountid=155509.
[27] John T. Correll, “The Neutron Bomb,” Air Force Magazine, Dec 2017, available at http://www. Airforce mag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2017/December%202017/The-Neutron-Bomb.aspx.
[28] Nikolai Sokov, “TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS ELIMINATION: NEXT STEP FOR ARMS CONTROL,” The Nonproliferation Review, Winter 1997, p. 18, available at http://www.nonproliferation.org/wp-content/uploads/ npr/sokov42.pdf.
[29] “New Generation of Arms,” The Moscow Times, June 7, 1994, available at http://www.themoscowtimes.com/ news/article/new-generation-of-arms/212085.html.
[30] Sokov, “TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS ELIMINATION: NEXT STEP FOR ARMS CONTROL,” op. cit., p. 18.: George Lewis in addition to Andrea Gabbitas, “What Should Be Done About Tactical Nuclear Weapons?”, (Washington D.C., The Atlantic Council, March 1999, p. 18.
[31] Quoted inward Schneider, “The Future of the U.S. Nuclear Deterrent,” op. cit., p. 348.
[32] Quoted Mark B. Schneider, The Nuclear Forces in addition to Doctrine of the Russian Federation, (Fairfax Va.: National Institute Press, 2006), p. 20, available at http://www.nipp.org/Publication/Downloads/ Publication% twenty Archive% 20PDF/Russian%20nuclear%20doctrine%20–%20NSF%20for%20print.pdf.
[33] Quoted inward Schneider, “The Future of the U.S. Nuclear Deterrent,” op. cit., p. 348.
[34] Quoted inward Schneider, The Nuclear Forces in addition to Doctrine of the Russian Federation, op. cit., p. 16.
[35] John W. Parker, Russia’s Revival: Ambitions, Limitations, in addition to Opportunities for the USA (Washington,
D.C.: Institute for National Strategic Studies, Jan 2011), p, 23, available at John W. Parker, Russia’s Revival: Ambitions, Limitations, in addition to Opportunities for the USA (Washington, D.C.: Institute for National Strategic Studies, Jan 2011), p, 23, available at http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/ u2/a546683.pdf.
[36] Pavel Felgenhauer, “Russia Seeks to Impose New ABM Treaty on the US past times Developing BMD,” Eurasia Daily
Monitor, Vol. 7, No. 136 (July 16, 2010), available at http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_Ttnews [tt_news]=36624.
[37] “News Briefing on the 2018 Nuclear Posture Review,” U.S. Department of Defense, Feb 2, 2018, available at https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript-View/Article/1431945/news-briefing-on-the-2018-nuclear-posture-review/.
[38] Owen C. W. Price in addition to Jenifer Mackby, eds., Debating 21st Century Nuclear Issues, (Washington, DC: Center For Strategic in addition to International Studies, 2007), 23, available at www.northropgrumman.com/analysis-center/other-publications/assets/triad-mono graph.pdf.
[39] Hans M. Kristensen, “B61-12: The New Guided Standoff Nuclear Bomb,” Federation of American Scientists, May 2, 2014, available at https://fas.org/programs/ssp/nukes/publications1/Brief2014_PREPCOM2.pdf.
[40] James R. Howe, “Potential Military Utility of Russian Employment of Advanced Technology Nuclear Weapons inward Europe—Implications for US Extended Deterrence,” Vision Centric, Inc., no date.
[41] Defense Science Board, Seven Defense Priorities for the New Administration, (Washington. D.C.: The Defense
Science Board, Dec 2016), p. 24, available at https://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2010s/Seven_Defense
_Priorities.pdf.
[42] Maxim Trudolyubov, “Putin Is Pushing a War Mentality on Unwilling Russians (Op-ed),” The Moscow Times, March 6, 2016, available at https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/putin-is-pushing-a-war-mentality-on-unwilling-russians-op-ed-60714.
[43] “Presidential Address to the Federal Assembly,” The Kremlin, March 1, 2018, available at http://en.kremlin.ru/ events/president/news/56957.
[44] Pavel Felgenhauer, “Putin Unveils Array of Nuclear ‘Super Weapons’ Aimed at US,” Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: fifteen Issue: 32, (March 1, 2018), available at https://jamestown.org/program/putin-unveils-array-of-nuclear-super-weapons-aimed-at-us/.
[45] Roger McDermott, “Russia’s Armed Forces Rehearse New ‘Shock-Fire’ Tactics,” Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: fifteen Issue: 34, (March 6, 2018), available at https://jamestown.org/program/russias-armed-forces-rehearse-new-shock-fire-tactics/.
[46] Derek Williams in addition to Adam B. Lowther, “Lower-Yield Weapons Will Raise, Not Lower, the Threshold for Nuclear Use,” Defense One, August 29, 2017, available at http://www.defenseone.com/ideas/ 2017/08/lower-yield-weapons-will-raise-not-lower-threshold-nuclear-use/140610/.
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