Lt. Col. Dominik J. Schellenberger, German linguistic communication Army
Professor Brian McAllister Linn of Texas A&M, author of Elvis’s Army: Cold War GIs as well as the Atomic Battlefield, conducts a seminar 4 May 2018 at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, amongst the 2017/18 Art of War Scholars on the U.S. Army’s post-World War II transformation to an “atomic army.” hat sense as well as history instruct is this—that people as well as governments never have got learned anything from history, or acted on principles deduced from it. —Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel
For the foremost fourth dimension inwards U.S. Army doctrinal history, Field Manual (FM) 3-0, Operations, names the enemies as well as adversaries that possess the capabilities to contender as well as degrade the battlefield across all domains as the “4+1”: Russia, China, North Korea, as well as Islamic Republic of Iran as good as radical ideologues as well as transnational criminal organizations such as the Islamic State as well as al-Qaida.1 Those peer as well as near-peer enemies as well as adversaries continually challenge the the States inwards multiple domains as well as purposefully below the threshold of opened upwards conflict or, as retired Lt. Gen. James M. Dubik as well as Nic Vincent telephone holler upwards it, inwards the grayness zone.2 This operational environs (OE) has led to permanent contender as good as unprecedented complexity, ambiguity, adversity, lethality, as well as uncertainty for military machine leaders across all levels of war.
In the lite of those challenges, the U.S. Army Command as well as General Staff College (CGSC) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas—the “super tanker” of the U.S. Army officeholder instruction system—is currently making a pregnant alter inwards its direction. And, so is the German linguistic communication equivalent, the Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr (FüAkBw) inwards Hamburg. This year, the CGSC is heading toward a curriculum dominated past times large-scale combat operations (LSCO), piece the German linguistic communication full general staff officeholder instruction is changing to to a greater extent than of a recollect tank-style approach. Both transition processes have got a unmarried mutual impetus for change: higher headquarters externally initiated the alter processes. Accordingly, pressure, oversight, as well as expectations are high. Throughout this transition process, both institutions tin acquire from each other on how to educate time to come acre score officers to deal amongst the challenges of the OE, to programme as well as execute military machine operations inwards that OE, and, ultimately, to component subdivision as organizational-level decision-makers.
After graduating from FüAkBw inwards 2013, I was selected to attend CGSC and, inwards conjunction, had the unique privilege of also beingness selected to participate inwards the Art of War (AoW) Scholar Program. This programme selects a cohort of only twelve officers representing 3 countries as well as iv military machine services who participate inwards a specially designed forum consisting of intensive, graduate-level seminars as well as in-depth personal inquiry focused primarily on agreement strategy as well as operational fine art through the vehicle of military machine history.
Against this autobiographical backdrop of those 3 types of professional person military machine instruction (PME), I brand the next observations: first, CGSC tin acquire from FüAkBw how to refine the acquit of exercises; second, FüAkBw tin acquire from CGSC the value of instance studies on leadership as well as in-depth historical education; as well as finally, both institutions tin do goodness from an instruction that acknowledges, as well as focuses on, the fine art of state of war as the pump as well as the soul of the military machine profession.
Prior to developing those arguments, it is mandatory to acquire the damage right. Both institutions have got the purpose of preparing acre score officers for the side past times side x to 15 years of their career; inwards the German linguistic communication case, maybe fifty-fifty for the residue of their career. At CGSC, the Command as well as General Staff Officer Course (CGSOC) provides intermediate-level PME to educate as well as develop time to come acre score officers inwards agility, adaptability, effective communication, critical thinking, as well as mission ascendancy inwards complex as well as uncertain environments. The CGSOC equivalent at FüAkBw, the Lehrgang General- und Admiralstabsdienst National (LGAN)—stemming from the long Prussian as well as German linguistic communication tradition—is meant to educate time to come Generalstabs- und Admiralstabsdienstoffiziere (general as well as admiral staff officers) over the course of study of 2 years. Despite the mutual purpose, the 2 institutions follow a distinctly dissimilar methodology. While CGSC is an annual army-centric course of study for to a greater extent than or less 1,200 resident students at a time, LGAN is a articulation course of study educating only 120 students from all 3 services of the German linguistic communication armed forces. Beyond the divergence inwards methodology, in that location are several other differences, mainly cultural, betwixt the 2 institutions. To explore all those differences would Pb beyond the range of this article. However, 1 illustration illustrating a divergence is the contrasting sentiment of the commander’s role inwards the operations procedure amongst the U.S. perspective beingness commander driven as well as the German linguistic communication perspective beingness staff driven.
Apples as well as Oranges
By now, 1 special objection mightiness have got already intrigued the reader: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 comparing betwixt CGSC educating 1,200 students over x months amongst FüAkBw educating 120 students over 2 years as well as the AoW scholarship programme focusing on only twelve officers inwards one-half a twelvemonth sure enough mightiness appear to live a comparing betwixt apples as well as oranges. The to a greater extent than officers are pushed through an academic environs amongst express resources inwards a express amount of time, the to a greater extent than challenging it gets. In this regard, the CGSC suffers from the regulation of mass. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 fine orchestration of the curriculum as well as the to a greater extent than or less 875 in-class hours of instruction is necessary to enable a somehow comparable as well as standardized instruction for all 1,200 students, depriving the faculty most only of whatsoever sort of flexibility to react to as well as screen electrical flow strategic events amongst implications for the military machine musical instrument of national power. At the same time, despite this work of mass, comparing as well as contrasting as good as drawing mutual conclusions regarding the content as well as curriculum of both CGSC as well as FüAkBw are mandatory to critically assess as well as continually improve both colleges. Even to a greater extent than important, the sentiment across the body of body of water to a sis college tin live to a greater extent than informative than only organizational alter inside one’s ain comfort zone as well as stove pipe.
The sentiment across the body of body of water to a sis college tin live to a greater extent than informative than only organizational alter inside one’s ain comfort zone as well as stove pipe.
CGSOC: The Importance as well as the Conduct of Exercises
To start amongst a personal example, my foremost operational-level exercise during CGSC challenged me for 2 reasons. On the 1 hand, the restricted time, as well as on the other hand, my sense from FüAkBw created multiple dilemmas for me as designated leader of the operational planning team. Within only four-and-a-half working days, our squad of 16 worked through the entire Joint Operational Planning Process (JOPP), including a wargame at the end. As this was the real foremost fourth dimension most students applied the JOPP, the pregnant endeavor was felt past times all. FüAkBw, inwards contrast, grants 2 total weeks for the same content amongst a staff consisting of the entire pupil torso of 120. Against this backdrop, a brusk human face at how FüAkBw is structured as well as conducts exercises mightiness live informative.
The FüAkBw methodology differs significantly from CGSC. The specialty of FüAkBw is its articulation approach. The CGSC, past times working its way downward from the strategic via the operational to the tactical level, intends to give students an agreement of how the small-scale bike of the brigade fits into the bigger motion painting of the military machine engine. In contrast, FüAkBw does it the other way around, trying to follow the regulation “from slow to difficult” past times edifice on as well as exploiting the existing personal sense of its students from previous training, assignments, as well as deployments. The course of study starts out amongst a articulation phase, where the students consummate a mutual heart as well as soul instruction on social, political, historical, as well as cross-service topics. The 2d service-related stage focuses on tactical-level planning as well as decision-making. For Army students, that agency repetitious cycles of the German linguistic communication decision-making procedure at brigade, divisional, as well as corps storey inwards all staff functions regardless of branch or military machine occupational specialty. The corps storey exercise is, past times the way, the juncture at which the CGSC-FüAkBw telephone substitution programme plugs in.
Students of the tenth Joint Lehrgang General- und Admiralstabsdienst analyze the assault of the Prussian First Army 10 September 2014 during a staff ride to the site of the 1866 Austro-Prussian Battle of Königgrätz, Czech Republic. (Photo past times author)
In a tertiary phase, all services are over again brought together to progress jointly to the operational level, learning how to programme amongst as well as execute the NATO operational-level planning process, and, finally, exercising the procedure of ministerial decision-making as well as staff work. As an example, for the total iv weeks of operational-level exercises, both planning as well as executing the NATO operational-level planning process, the students do non only stand upwards up a articulation operational planning group, but beyond that, Army students render the Land Component Command, Air Force students the Air Component Command, as well as Navy students the Maritime Component Command. Overall, the FüAkBw’s comprehensive course of study construction is necessary as graduates detect themselves at 1 time after the course of study inwards billets ranging from brigade G-3s (operations officers) to, inwards my case, the executive officeholder to the primary of staff of the German linguistic communication Joint Forces Operations Command.
The full general approach of both institutions as well as the methodology of how exercises are conducted is significantly different, too. At the FüAkBw, inwards a holistic sense, exercises are exercises, both temporally as well as physically. Thus, students do non human face upwards parallel history, leadership, or strength administration instructions as well as assignments and, therefore, tin ameliorate focus on the exercise. The same is truthful for the faculty. As the faculty is non occupied past times teaching classes as well as grading papers, staff grouping advisors as well as instructors tin focus on their heart as well as soul competency of mentoring students inwards their respective warfighting functions throughout the exercise.
To brand the planning seek fifty-fifty to a greater extent than realistic, the FüAkBw reaches out to national as well as multinational headquarters, staffs, as well as branch schools to integrate real-life sense into the college planning exercises. Finally, this seek to copy realism inwards exercises reaches its climax amongst the invaluable guidance as well as wealth of cognition provided past times a senior mentor, inwards most cases, a of late retired three- or four-star general, acting as commanding general.
FüAkBw: The Value of Leadership as well as Historical Education
Consequently, the FüAkBw profits from the added expertise of experienced senior mentors as well as their insights into aspects of higher command. This necessarily leads to the inquiry of how time to come acre score officers tin truly “learn” leadership as well as commandership. Personal sense sure enough is 1 side of the coin, which is irreplaceable. The other side are role models as well as mentors, both contemporary as good as historical. Such role models mightiness live fifty-fifty to a greater extent than of import for those inwards militaries that have got mainly been involved inwards express contingency operations inwards the recent past. At the same time, this is also how doctrine evolves—through systematically processed private as well as organizational combat sense supported past times historical examples as well as driven past times future-oriented concepts. This inherent interrelationship builds the span betwixt leadership as well as historical instruction as well as instruction. Tools that assist to construct that span are, for instance, leadership instance studies.
Two of many fruitful examples from the CGSC curriculum on how leadership tin positively influence hard situations are British Field Marshal Sir William Slim inwards the China-India-Burma Theater of Operations inwards World War II as well as American Gen. Matthew Ridgway as well as the Eighth U.S. Army inwards the Korean War. Such instance studies offering a tremendous amount of extremely insightful as well as powerful leadership lessons, which tin inform time to come acre score officers of how to approach challenging operational as well as strategic problems inwards austere environments. Those leadership studies are of fifty-fifty greater importance to the vast bulk of military machine leaders, who are not—as Slim as well as Ridgway—“military geniuses,” as Carl von Clausewitz called it, or “great captains,” as Napoleon used to say.3
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Students at both colleges must empathise that in that location is no unmarried fashion inwards conducting the fine art of state of war and, subsequently, no unmarried way of war.
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Dubik argues that leaders at operational as well as strategic storey request to master copy 2 theories: first, the theory of state of war itself; and, second, but every bit important, the theory of organizational change.4 Notable persons associated amongst organizational alter theory are John P. Kotter (Leading Change) as well as Peter M. Senge (The Fifth Discipline: The Art as well as Practice of the Learning Organization). According to Dubik, at the strategic as well as operational level, an organizational leader must foremost develop his or her ain agreement of the theory of state of war so that he or she tin so influence the administration of the military machine super tanker, to reuse the metaphor from the outset of this article. Only if the organizational leader is capable of understanding, visualizing, as well as describing the operational environs properly does he or she travel truly capable of developing viable solutions, or as the military machine calls it, courses of action. Retired Gen. David Petraeus’s approach to understand, visualize, as well as depict the conflict inwards Republic of Iraq inwards 2007 amongst the guide of the famous counterinsurgency doctrine, FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency, is an first-class illustration of what Dubik apparently asserted.
However, such a combination of the theory of state of war as well as organizational theory is currently underrepresented at the FüAkBw as well as would assist to refine as well as guide the college into the administration of a military machine “think tank.”
CGSC as well as FüAkBw: The Art of War
The combination of the theory of state of war amongst organizational leadership theory leads to the lastly transformational amalgamation of concepts, which both the CGSC as well as the FüAkBw should encompass to a greater extent than vigorously—the fine art of war.
The fine art of state of war has many facets. An slow to empathise Definition past times Dubik differentiates between, on the 1 hand, the scientific discipline of war, revolving about the physical, quantifiable, as well as technical aspects, and, on the other hand, the fine art of war, revolving about applying nonphysical aspects to wage war. Further, he asserts that “operational fine art describes the exercise of using tactical military machine forces inwards sequence or simultaneously; inwards battles, engagements, as well as maneuvers; as well as inwards a stimulate or serial of campaigns to attain strategic aims.”5 It should live self-evidently obvious how this agreement of the fine art of state of war builds a span to what U.S. Army Doctrine Reference Publication (ADRP) 3-0, Operations, defines as operational fine art as well as its related principles.6
Students of the tenth Joint Lehrgang General- und Admiralstabsdienst have instructions on the German linguistic communication regular army decision-making procedure 10 September 2014 during a tactical exercise without troops inwards Uslar, Germany. (Photo past times author)
But why is the differentiation betwixt the fine art as well as the scientific discipline of state of war so of import for time to come acre score as well as full general staff officers? Critical analysis of the fine art of state of war touches the heart as well as soul of the military machine profession, especially for officers. Students at both colleges must empathise that in that location is no unmarried fashion inwards conducting the fine art of state of war and, subsequently, no unmarried way of war. For example, the American way of state of war has flowed dorsum as well as forth betwixt an attritional “first way of war,” as John Grenier argued, as well as a Prussian influenced annihilation-focused way of war, as so famously suggested past times Russell F. Weigley, ever considering the “politics of the moment,” as argued past times Antulio J. Echevarria.7
In the same way as inwards the United States, other regions as well as nations have got developed their ain ways of war, ofttimes influenced past times cultural tenets, political as well as social circumstances, revolutions inwards military machine affairs, as well as the influence of indigenous strategic thinkers. Below nosotros consider the 3 most prominent ways of war:
Chinese. The Chinese way of state of war has been significantly shaped past times Dominicus Tzu as well as his The Art of War, which serves real much as the foundation for Chinese strategic thinking.8 As a result, the Chinese way of state of war tends to live mostly defensive inwards nature, characterized past times intentionally engaging inwards protracted conflict as well as deception amongst corking emphasis on patiently looking for the strategic payoff amongst the aim of trying to win without fighting past times coercing others through multiple agency to human activity inwards one’s ain favor. Notably, Mao Tse-tung incorporated many of Dominicus Tzu’s ideas inwards the precepts explained inwards On Guerilla Warfare, which were employed to laid the stage for the Chinese communist revolutionary state of war as well as which laid Mao’s approach apart from Joseph Stalin’s Soviet Russian Communism.9
Russian. The Russian way of state of war tends to emphasize the offensive that employs a strategy aimed at inflicting heavy devastation on an enemy, fights “deep battles” amongst massed forces, as well as is otherwise attritional inwards nature, willing to merchandise infinite for fourth dimension on the supposition that fourth dimension is on its side. Consonant amongst this approach is deep operations theory thought out past times Wladimir Kiriakowitsch Triandafillov as well as Mikhail Nikolayevich Tukhachevsky as well as finally carried frontwards past times Georgii Samoilovich Isserson. Equally of import nonetheless for today is Alexander Andreyevich Svechin’s contribution of the “operational art” as the span betwixt tactics as well as strategy.10
Western. The modern foundations of the Western way of state of war residue on the writings of the Prussian philosopher Clausewitz, most notably, his masterpiece On War, as good as those of the Suisse theorist Baron de Jomini, such as the The Art of War, both of which were elevated past times Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke during the 1870–71 German linguistic communication Unification Wars, manifested inwards the famous Schlieffen plan, as well as later transformed into the blitzkrieg thought past times the Field Marshals Erich von Manstein, Heinz Guderian, as well as Erwin Rommel.11 The Western way of state of war is offensive inwards nature, based on tempo, firepower, as well as initiatory that aims for decisive defeat as well as annihilation of an adversary through independent operational-level motion as well as maneuver.
The diversely dissimilar ways of state of war provoke some interesting observations. The Russian illustration reveals that the term functioning as well as the operational storey of war, today most inflationarily used, are non American or Prussian inventions, but that they stalk from the to a higher house mentioned Russian theorists. Those theorists also developed the concept of “deep battle,” which somehow seems to have got inspired U.S. doctrine writers developing the of late published ADRP 3-0, Operations, as well as FM 3-0, Operations.12
Leaders that empathise the background as well as the connector betwixt the dissimilar ways of state of war tin ameliorate empathise how Russia’s annexation of Crimea fits into the Russian way of state of war or how the Chinese expansion into the South Cathay Sea fits into the Chinese way of war. Furthermore, amongst an agreement of the theory of war, leaders volition also live capable of proactively contributing to stimulate plans across all levels of war. Conversely, if military machine leaders graduate from either college without a clear concept of a theory of state of war as good as their ain agreement of the dissimilar ways of war, they mightiness misinterpret enemy or adversary intentions as good as force ill-informed conclusions inwards time to come assignments.
At this point, the AoW Scholar Program tin serve, at to the lowest degree partially, as a designing of how to ready time to come leaders to recollect at the operational as well as strategic level. The purpose of the programme is to make officers amongst critical thinking skills as well as an advanced agreement of the fine art of warfighting. To do that, AoW scholars embark on a challenging journeying along national ways of war, total war, Cold War, counterinsurgency theory as well as experience, express war, U.S. Army doctrine as well as concepts, fine art of command, as well as electrical flow experience. This 360-degree view, incorporating past times lessons, considering electrical flow solutions, as well as anticipating time to come challenges, provides the AoW scholars amongst a enterprise kit purse for the uncertainty, ambiguity, complexity, as well as adversity of the time to come battlefield; the expanded purpose, so to say, is non only to develop for certainty but to educate for uncertainty.
Conclusion
Thinking, developing, as well as implementing changes inwards the PME of time to come acre score officers is hard. This is every bit truthful for the CGSC as good as the FüAkBw. Such alter processes have got to breach emotional minefields as well as entrenchments that have got into consideration both demands as well as sensitivities of the constituting parts—in the instance of the CGSC, the entrenched traditions of the departments; as well as inwards the instance of the FüAkBw, the services.
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Both the CGSC as well as the FüAkBw would live good advised to middle all educational efforts on the fine art of war.
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In addition, turning to the super tanker metaphor 1 time over again past times adapting PME to the continuously evolving OE might—like the legendary Sisyphus—regularly terminate upwards 1 stair brusk of the objective. Against this backdrop, doubtlessly, both colleges tin acquire from each other how to educate time to come acre score officers to deal amongst the challenges of the OE, to programme as well as execute military machine operations inwards that OE, as well as to component subdivision as military machine advisors to political determination makers. As argued above, the CGSC tin acquire from the FüAkBw how to refine the acquit of exercises, piece the FüAkBw tin acquire from the CGSC the value of leadership as well as historical education. And, finally, both institutions tin do goodness from an instruction focused on the fine art of state of war as the pump as well as the soul of the military machine profession.
For the CGSC, a refinement of the acquit of exercises would greatly heighten the associated learning objectives. Setting upwards exercises “from slow to difficult” inwards a holistic fashion would non only enable the exercise of the total subject-matter expertise of the faculty, but perchance also of external institutions such as divisional, corps, or combatant ascendancy headquarters. The climax of that development, at to the lowest degree for a chosen exercise, could live the introduction of senior mentorship.
Also, importantly, inwards contrast to the fourth dimension allocated to testing as well as assignments, the immediate value of contact hours invested into exercises cannot live direct measured. Obviously, some of the provided suggestions mightiness at 1 time arouse the apples-and-oranges declaration from the beginning. However, as an illustration from a unusual military machine perspective, it is hardly understandable why the U.S. Army should non live able to attract a sufficient amount of subject-matter experts, including retired generals, to actively contribute to the PME of the precious goodness of time to come acre score officers.
For the FüAkBw, rediscovering the currently underestimated significance of historical instruction would live an of import foremost step. This rediscovery has to travel mitt inwards mitt amongst a widening of the historical lens beyond the Prussian as well as the German linguistic communication histories as good as the history of the German linguistic communication Bundeswehr. Battle as well as stimulate history needs to travel an integral component subdivision of the curriculum, which currently is non the case. This must include refocusing on Clausewitz as well as Jomini as German-speaking philosophers of state of war to enable an agreement of the theory of war. On this historical basis, leadership instruction tin successfully business organisation human relationship to a greater extent than appropriately for the theories as well as aspects of organizational storey leadership as well as change.
Finally, both the CGSC as well as the FüAkBw would live good advised to middle all educational efforts on the fine art of war. At the pump of this give-and-take is the question, what is the ultimate purpose of armed forces? The answer to that inquiry defines how to man, train, as well as equip armed forces, and, as a consequence, how to educate its time to come leaders. If the purpose of armed forces is to execute military machine force, so the CGSC as well as the FüAkBw have got to enable time to come acre score officers non only to contend but to wage war. Waging state of war at the strategic as well as operational storey is significantly dissimilar from fighting state of war at the tactical. Exploring the fine art of war—and operational art—will assist the CGSC as well as the FüAkBw to ameliorate ready officers for waging state of war inwards the human face upwards of unprecedented complexity, ambiguity, adversity, lethality, as well as uncertainty.
Ultimately, this leads to some other aspect, which has non been touched past times this article, the inquiry of how the CGSC as well as the FüAkBw truly assess the effect of the respective courses on the evolution as well as acquisition of the skills as well as competencies associated amongst the purpose as outlined at the real beginning. Such a systematic assessment—reaching far beyond regular evaluation reports—still seems to live a weak spot inside PME on both sides of the Atlantic as well as leaves farther room for continuous improvement.
NotesEpigraph. Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel, The Philosophy of History (New York: P. F. Collier as well as Son, 1901), 49
For details on how Field Manual (FM) 3-0 depicts the electrical flow operational environment, come across the introduction to FM 3-0, Operations (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office [GPO], 6 Oct 2017).
For details on America’s competiton inwards the grayness zone, come across James M. Dubik as well as Nic Vincent, America’s Global Competitions: The Gray Zone inwards Context (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War, Feb 2018).
Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. as well as trans. Michael Howard as well as Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 75–123, 141.
James M. Dubik (PhD; Lt. Gen., U.S. Army, ret.; Senior Fellow at the Institute for the Study of War, Washington, DC; professor at the Security Studies Program, Georgetown University, Washington, DC), “COIN as well as Insurgency,” Art of War seminar session no. 43, thirty March 2018.
James M. Dubik, Operational Art inwards Counterinsurgency: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 View from the Inside (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War, May 2012), 11–12.
Army Doctrine Reference Publication 3-0, Operations (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, Oct 2017), chap. 2.
For the attritional way of war, come across John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005); for the annihilation-focused way of war, come across Russel F. Weigley, The American Way of War: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 History of the States Military Strategy as well as Policy (New York: Macmillan, 1973); for the role the “politics of the moment” played for the American way of war, come across Antulio J. Echevarria, Reconsidering the American Way of War: U.S. Military Practice From the Revolution to Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2014).
Sun Tzu, The Art of War, amongst introduction past times B. H. Liddell Hart, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971).
Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication 12-18, Mao Tse-tung on Guerrilla Warfare, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (Quantico, VA, v Apr 1989).
G. S. Isserson developed the deep battle concept against the backdrop of the stalemate as well as contiguous fronts at the Western forepart during the First World War. In short, his concept relies on an assault as well as a breakthrough echelon to penetrate a broad forepart as well as stimulate its collapse inwards depth. For details, come across G. S. Isserson, The Evolution of Operational Art, trans. Bruce W. Menning (Fort Leavenworth, KS: SAMS Theoretical Special Edition, 2005). For background data on the evolution of the deep battle concept, come across Richard Simpkin, “From Broad Front to Deep Battle,” inwards Deep Battle: The Brainchild of Marshal Tukhachevskii (London: Brassey’s Defence Publishers, 1987), 33–52. In addition, Alexander Andreyevich Svechin refers to “operational art” as a tertiary category of military machine fine art betwixt strategy as well as tactics. For details, come across Jacob W. Kipp, “General-Major A. A. Svechin as well as Modern Military Warfare: Military History as well as Military Theory,” inwards A. A. Svechin, Strategy (Minneapolis: East View Publications, 1991), 23–56.
Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. as well as trans. Michael Howard as well as Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976). Henri Antoine Jomini, The Art of War, trans. G. H. Mendell as well as W. P. Craighill (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippencott & Co., 1862). For details on the special evolution of the Prussian way of war, come across Robert Citino, The German linguistic communication Way of War(Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2005).
For details on how Field Manual (FM) 3-0 incorporates Isserson’s deep battle concept, come across FM 3-0, Operations (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, 6 Oct 2017), 7-7–7-9.
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